I. Developing Learning Strategies
A. Effective Instruction considers content two-fold, the "what" will be taught and the "how" it will be taught.
B. Instructional Material Strategies should consider the following three components:
1. Learners' Characteristics & Needs
2. Learning Outcomes & Application Context
3. Instructional & Environmental Context
C. Instructional Strategies Development
1. Chuck the Content
2. Learning Events for each Content Chunk
3. Activities should align with Outcomes & Assessments
II. Chunking & Sequencing Content
A. Chunk = a set of logical topics
B. Size of Chunks
1. Larger chunks used for learners with a lot of prior knowledge
2. Smaller chunks used when providing new information to learners
3. Age of learner should be considered as well, e.g., kindergartners (10 minutes) vs. college students (1- 2 hour time period)
4. Type of learner for same topic (heart attacks) should be considered, e.g., elderly patients vs.
cardiologists
5. Magic Number 7 (+/-2 = 5 or 9) for "Working Memory" of new information introduced;
avoid including too much content
III. Prioritizing Content
A. What 3 concepts are most important?
B. What concepts can be eliminated?
C. Time Allocation
1. Which concepts need special treatment?
2. Which concepts can be addressed quickly?
3. Ask SME's their professional opinion about time allocation for the aforementioned concepts
IV. Planning Learning Events
A. "What" = chunking concepts
B. "How" = instructional strategies
V. Learning Theories
A. Behavior Theory--learning occurs through reinforcement of desired responses
B. Cognitive Theory--learning involves storing new information with related prior information
C. Constructive Theory--learners construct knowledge through use social cues
D. Instructional Designers (IDers) may be restricted by their clients to use a certain theory.
E. IDers should place each theory in their designer's toolkit
VI. Learning Events should include the following regardless of the theory used:
A. Motivate learners to focus on the instructional goals
B. Allow learners an opportunity to personalize new information by connecting it with their prior
knowledge
C. Allow learners to "do something" and to synthesize information to monitor whether their learning goals
have been met
D. Allow learners to an opportunity to extend or transfer their knowledge to new situations
VII. Focusing on Goals
A. Learning experiences need to meet the learner's needs
B. Needs/ Motivation will vary from learner to learner, e.g., free time, promotion, etc.
C. Who sets the learning goals: teacher, IDer, student?
D. Instructional Techniques that Focuses Learners' Attention
1. Provide a pretest so learners can focus their attention to concepts introduced later
2. Offer thought-provoking questions
3. State explicitly a short list of learning objectives
4. Provide an overview of the content
5. Describe the benefit of the content to the learners
6. Have learners solve a problem
7. Use graphic organizers
8. Appeal to learner's curiosity
9. Intentionally create tension by offering unanswerable questions or unsolvable tasks
10. Initiate a "need to know" thought in the learner's cognition
11. Teach learners how to set and monitor their own goals
VIII. Recalling Relevant Prior Knowledge
A. All theories use the activation of prior knowledge
B. Prior knowledge aids in understanding new information
C. Create "filing systems" in our minds
1. Combine related old and new information
2. Create new folders that are full and make more manageable smaller subsets
3. Create new folders when novel information cannot be linked with old information
D. Offer students cues to activate prior knowledge such as:
1. "As you recall..."
2. "In the last lesson, we learned..."
E. Connect prior knowledge with goal setting questions below:
1. What do you already know about the topic?
2. What do you want to know?
3. How will you seek the information that you need?
F. Comparing & Contrasting Prior Knowledge & Novel Information
1. Reflective Journaling
2. Dialoguing with peers
G. Tailoring Lessons for Diverse Learners
1. Optional Tutorials
2. Entry Exam with two paths of instruction (bypass the tutorial or the option to complete it)
IX. Gaining & Integrating Content Knowledge
A. Strategies to aid learners with new content:
1. mnemonic devices--verbal information
2. demonstrations--processes
3. examples--concepts
4. observations--actions & attitudes
B. Organizing Content
1. Comparative Organizers
2. 5 W's--who, what, when, where, and how
3. Outlines
4. Concept Maps
C. Guiding Learning through Content Knowledge
1. Modeling--instructor demonstrates the desired behavior
2. Scaffolding--supports are removed as students master the material
3. Coaching--asks the "Have you considered?"-types of questions
X. Taking Action & Monitoring Progress
A. Students complete a task either before the content is delivered or after a teacher demonstrates it.
B. Completing it before creates the "need to know" for learners
C. Feedback
1. Comes in many forms
2. Provides learners with information on their progress so they can judge, monitor, or correct their
learning
3. Natural consequences
a. Observation--kindergartners creating secondary colors
b. Taste--adults creating wine
4. Direct Feedback--computer immediately corrects a quiz question
5. Reinforcement--rewarding learners for correct actions yield more correct responses
a. Internal Satisfaction
b. Monetary Incentives
c. Bonuses
d. Certificates
6. Social Feedback with Instruction
a. Chat Rooms
b. Online Discussion Boards
c. Face-to-Face Discussions
d. Samples of Other Students' Responses
e. Role playing
D. Drill & Practice--has its place in instruction, but is only useful in certain disciplines, i.e., foreign language
or math
E. Action Strategies
1. Creative Practice Activities with Appropriate "Time on Task" Activities
2. Simulations--recreating an environment without the potential harm if mistakes are made
3. Case Studies
4. Problem-Solving
5. Scenarios to Examine
6. Projects to Complete
7. Teaching Others
8. Developing a Product
9. Practicing a Skill
F. Monitor Progress
1. Give learners feedback to assist them in the errors that they will make
2. Offer credit for participation, but not "graded" feedback
3. Feedback allows learners the opportunity to judge the adequacy of their knowledge
XI. Synthesizing & Evaluating
A. After several chunks of information is delivered, students should synthesize new information
1. Summarizing
2. Outlining
3. Writing narratives
4. Diagramming
B. Evaluating the Synthesis
1. Compare summaries to instructors
2. Group Discussions (study groups)
3. Assessments
a. Multiple choice tests
b. Projects
c. Portfolios
d. Essay Exams
XII. Extending & Transferring
A. Learners should not limit their knowledge to a particular context; should generalize their knowledge to
other contexts
B. Create authentic settings so learners can practice the transfer of information
C. Job aids--quick reference guides to aid in task performance
1. Step-by-step lists
2. Flowcharts
3. Tables
4. Forms
5. Checklists
6. Worksheets
7. Reference Materials
XIII. Sequencing Events
A. Convergent--focus is on predetermined ends
B. Divergent--focus is on novel or outcomes
C. Direct Hierarchical Sequence--obtain basic skills first, then apply them to complex tasks (cognitive &
behavioral theories)
D. Problem-Centered Sequence--obtain basic skills while working on complex tasks (constructive theory)
E. Application Model
1. Activate prior knowledge, acquire new knowledge, then apply skills toward a
predetermined outcome, e.g., skin disorders
2. Hierarchical Sequence & Cognitive Theory
F. Extension Model
1. Same as Application Model, but the outcome is open-ended, e.g., essay writing
2. Cognitive & ConstructivistTheories
G. Discovery Model
1. Acquire basic skills by working on a problem, e.g., weights and seesaws
2. Constructivist Theory
H. Invention Model
1. Complex problem-centered that can yield many results, e.g., paper airplanes
2. Constructivist Theory
XIX. Aligning the Elements
A. Verbal Skills
1. Webbing
2. Mnemonics
3. Stories
4. Imagery
5. Other "Memory Tricks"
B. Intellectual Skills (procedural)
1. Chunks skills
2. Practice--> transferring information to other settings
3. Offer feedback
4. Modeling
5. Note distinctive features
6. Provide examples
C. Motor Skills--similar to intellectual skills (chunking, practice, and feedback)
D. Teaching Attitudes
1. Instructor needs to relate to learner on an emotional level so they are motivated to change their
behavior (affective learning)
2. Difficult to measure, but can be done
3. Personal testimonials
4. Observe an admired role model performing the desired behavior(s)
E. Cognitive Strategies
1. Learners set personal goals and outline strategies to meet those goals
2. Learners monitor their own performance through self-reflection of learning strategies
3. Guide learners in choosing successful strategies
4. Learner practices skill
5. Instructor offers feedback
F. Outcomes, assessments, & activities should align
